DeepSeek and Moonshot AI, from China, relied heavily on outputs from OpenAI's GPT-6 Astra model, from the United States, to train their latest models, according to The Information.

The beneficiaries were Moonshot's Kimi K3.1 Pro, released last week, and DeepSeek's upgraded V4.1-Flash 1017, launched on October 17. In a September 30 blog post, OpenAI said it had linked a core part of a distillation campaign that began in July to individuals associated with Moonshot AI.